Piltdown Man Scam

1. An amateur archeologist, Charles Dawson, discovered an ape jawbone and claimed it to be part of one of the first human skulls. He dug it up in 1912 at an archaeological site in England called Piltdown.  Dawson worked with several other paleontologists and geologists such as Arthur Smith Woodward and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin to help him with his discoveries. After they found the jawbone they announced it to the Royal Geological Society which caused great enthusiasm because England never had ancient human fossils like the other countries have before. This evidence of early humans was dubbed “Piltdown man”. For 40 years people did not question this discovery because of Dawson’s and the other scientists’ prestige. However, there was still a few that were skeptical. After Dawson died, more research on evolution was made and more fossils of early humans were discovered which did not match Piltdown man’s. Finally in 1953, dating tests and stain tests were made on the bone and artifacts that revealed they were superficial and altered. The jawbone dated less than a hundred years and came from a female orangutan. Someone had forged the fossils but no one knows who the culprit was for sure. Suspects include:  Dawson, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Arthur Keith, Martin A. C. Hinton, Horace de Vere Cole and Arthur Conan Doyle but the truth remains unknown.

2. National pride, greed, and selfishness can all obscure the objectivity of “good science”. Scientific discovery should ultimately benefit everyone. When someone does something just for him or herself and craves fame and possibly fortune, they are putting a negative impact on the scientific process. Scientists are respected for their discoveries because it is universal to think they have good motives, especially for how much work and time they put in to discovering something new. What they share to the world really matters and is usually beneficial knowledge; to obscure that information or discovery can lead other scientists or even average people down the wrong path. Just imagine if a scientist claimed he discovered a cure for cancer. That could surely make the scientist renowned, but if it was not true, it could’ve caused other scientists to stop their efforts and that would've slowed down scientific progress. It could even make matters worse for the patients and the public because the false discovery would make science less believable. In short, science should be a practice done for the masses and not just for self-interest. If a scientist chooses to be selfish, that could stop the faith in science and slow the emergence for new, beneficial and vital information for the future.

3. The skepticism of Piltdown Man caused more scientist to use more evidence to falsify the so called “missing link” fossil. More bones were found in Asia and Africa that gave evidence of early human skulls, but ones that did not match Piltdown’s. In the 1940’s this new technology that measured the fluorine content of fossils helped date the Piltdown jaw. They found it to be much younger than a million years old. Finally in the 1950’s they had better dating methods and microscopes that showed the stains were superficial and the bones have been filed down. Using scientific methods such  as these revealed the hoax. 

4. I would definitely like to remove this “human” factor from not just science but from many industries in our world. Not only in science are people selfish but, for instance, in politics. People tend to corrupt systems with their self-interests. Many third world countries are suffering from corrupt government, leaving the majority of their people in poverty while those in the elite lie at the top. The “human” factor sometimes stops science from progressing. People rely on scientists to provide the evidence and form or prove scientific theories. If a scientist decides to care just for him or herself, then no one will benefit. As much as I would want people to stop being selfish, I don’t believe people can. It is just human nature. The best thing people could do is create a better example and hope people follow. If people practice being honest, being humble, and sharing, that can definitely improve not just science but the world.  

5. It ‘s hard not to believe scholarly scientists but I've learned that unless the information is verified by other sources and not just their own, that it is possible that there can be error to that information. In order for information to be valid, for me, it should be able to be backed up by evidence and that should be confirmed by other scientists. I believe scientists are professionals that have good intentions. Most scientists want to improve the world and provide more useful findings to better the future. But we cannot change how they are human. We certainly do have to be careful when we hear “scientifically proven” on commercials. The sources that can legitimately prove their claims and are widely accepted by other serious professionals, should be the ones to be trusted.

Body size and Sexual Dimorphism

Lemurs (Prosimians/Strepsirhini)
a. Madagascar is the home to all lemurs. They are only found there and a few islands off the coast of Africa. However, they live in a variety of habitats on those islands. Some lemurs live in moist, tropical rain forests and others in dryer areas like the desert or woodlands. The majority of lemurs spend their time in trees or bushes, hanging off branches. Others, like the ringtail lemur spends time on the ground. There are also nocturnal lemurs that are active at night and tend to stay alone.
b. There are many types of lemurs. The Indri and Diademed Sifaka lemurs are the largest and can weigh up to 15 lbs. The species of the black lemur tend to weigh about 7-9 lbs and have a body length of 22-26 inches. The smallest of lemurs is the pygmy mouse lemur and only weighs an once. On average, male and female lemurs are the same size. They measure about 1.39 ft for body size and weigh between 4-5 lbs. In the wild, it is rare for female ring-tailed lemurs to live past 16 years of age and the oldest known wild female was between 18 and 20 years old. Male life span is even less because of the social system, but have been recorded living to at least 15 years of age. Both male and female ring-tailed lemurs have scent glands. Male ring-tailed lemurs have darkly colored scent glands on the inside of their wrists and on their chests and also have spurs. Lemur sexual dimorphism is usually exhibited through different coloring.
c. Lemurs are "opportunistic omnivores" which mean they eat ripe fruits, leaves, leaf stems, flowers, flower stems, exudates, spiders, spider webs, caterpillars, cicadas, insect cocoons, birds, chameleons, cicadas, grasshoppers, and even dirt from termite mounds. To get this supply, one of their most important sources are the tamarind trees. I presume their small size makes it easy for them to scurry up trees and also get a lot of forest cover.

Sources:http://www.eskeletons.org/index.html,
http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/ring-tailed_lemur, http://tigerhomes.org/animal/lemurs.cfm, http://science.jrank.org/pages/3903/Lemurs-True-lemurs.html

Spider Monkey (New World Monkey/Platyrrhini)
a. Spider monkeys have a wide geographical distribution but can be found mostly in the tropics of Central and South America. Some also live in Brazil and the Andes mountains. Spider monkeys do not live on the ground. They live from tree to tree. They thrive in the upper canopy so they compete less with other primates on the ground.
b. They do not have thumbs however they can still grip tree branches without any limitations. They have prehensile tails which is used like an extra hand. There is a patch of skin that they have at the end of their tails which works like a finger to help increase their gripping ability. Male and female spider monkeys look similar. Males have the body length of 38-48 cm, a tail length of 63-82 cm and weighs about 9-10 kg. Females have the body length of 42-57 cm, a tail length of 75-92 cm and weighs 6-8 kg.
c. The lack of an opposable thumb is a result of their environmental adaptation. It is due to them being accustomed to travel from tree to tree in their arboreal surroundings where a thumb is not usually needed. Their tail is also another feature that helps them live their arboreal life. While they are climbing, swinging and gripping with their tail, it allows the hands to be free to gather food.

Sources:http://rainforest.montclair.edu/pwebrf/rainforest/Animals/mammals/spidermonkey.html, http://www.macalester.edu/~montgomery/spidermonkey.html, http://www.honoluluzoo.org/spider_monkey.htm, http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/rainforests/spidermonkey.html


Baboon (Old World Monkey/Cercopithecidae)
a.Baboons usually live in groups or "troops" and settle in African woodland savannas. There are some that live in Arabia. They mostly live on the ground because they do not have gripping tails but they do still climb trees to sleep or eat. They prefer the semi-arid weather of the savannas but some still do live in the tropical rain forest.
b. There are five different species of baboons. On average, the males of different species are usually 33 to 82 pounds. Baboon bodies are 20 to 40 inches long, not including tails lengths. Females are half the size of males.
c. Since baboons are flexible and can find food anywhere from  the ground, the trees, even underground, they are able to adapt to varying habitats with their strategies. They are able to extract food and nutrients from almost all strata of the environment.

sources: http://www.eskeletons.org/index.html, http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/olive_baboon, http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/baboon/


Gibbon (Lesser ape/Hylobatidae)
a. Gibbons are arboreal, so they live in the trees. They mostly inhabit northern India and the islands of Indonesia.
b. There are 12 species of gibbons and are generally not sexually dimorphic in size. Females usually weigh more than mature males. They have very long arms and use them for a swinging locomotion called "brachiation". They also have very long hands and fingers. Gibbons are small and lightweight and grow to be around 90cm tall and weigh just 7kg. They look similar besides the differing colors.
c. Since gibbons are lightweight, they are able to move around and leap between the trees. Their small size also makes them more swift. Plus, their arms allow them to have a long reach. Living in the trees is also beneficial to them because the trees provide them with plenty of food supply.

sources: http://www.eskeletons.org/index.html, http://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/primates/facts/factsheets/gibbons/default.cfm, http://a-z-animals.com/animals/gibbon/


Chimpanzee (Great ape/Hominidae)
a. Chimpanzees live in groups and inhabit most of Central and Western Africa. They can live in places ranging from humid rain-forests to swampland to grasslands to woodlands. They make nests made out of leaves and plants for sleeping in the trees. They are known for constructing.
b. Chimpanzees are our closest relative. We share 98% genetic material. Some differences include: larger ears, more protruding face, and bigger lips. For males, their weight ranges between 75-154 lbs and 55-110 lbs for females. Their height ranges from about 3-1/4 feet to 5-1/2 feet. They don't have tails.  Their arms tend to be longer than their height. They have similar hands to humans but shorter thumbs. They can pick things up with their feet.c. Chimps are able to make tools with their surroundings. They use sticks to fish and dig up termites to eat. They make hammers out of stones to crush nuts. They even use chewed up leaves to sop up water to drink. They are resourceful and intelligent.

Sources:http://www.eskeletons.org/index.html,  http://www.iearn.org.au/greatapes/chimps.htm,

Researching through all these primates, it really fascinated me that we humans lie in the same family tree as them. It is quite funny to say we are related to spider moneys. I also found that the environment greatly impacts each species' adaptions and their steps to evolving. Many of the primates above had to learn to live in the trees to avoid predators and protect their small bodies. Also, their small size helps them with their agility. Small details including a grasping tail or opposable thumbs definitely helps these animals survive as well.

Homology vs. Analogy

Homology
A homologous trait is when organisms share a trait due to common ancestry.

a. The bones of a human's front limb are homologous to the bones of a bat's front limb. 

b. Both limbs end in five digits, and even if some parts differ in size, both limbs have the same overall structure. However, they are used for different functions. It's obvious that humans cannot fly, but they use their five fingers to pick things up. Bats on the other hand, can fly but cannot pick things up with their five "fingers". 

c. All vertebrate animals (frogs, birds, fish, people) have skeletons because the ancestor of the vertebrates had a skeleton and passed that trait on to all of its descendants

Analogy

Traits that are similar due to reasons other than relatedness are called analogous. Such similarities can result from random chance or because unrelated organisms have adapted to similar environments. 

a. Although flying animals all have wings, if one would actually compare their wings, they'll find more differences than similarities. Insects have two pairs of wings, birds each have one pair. 

b. Insect wings lack bones, but a bird's wings, like an owl's, do have them. Butterfly wings are covered in scales, and bird wings in feathers. Although, they share the same function: they help the being fly. 

c. These organisms have adapted to life in the air and in doing so have evolved wings. Since wings have evolved independently in each of these groups, and don't indicate that they are closely related, the possession of wings is an analogous trait.